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The Music of the Spheres . . . er, Ring

Written by David Carrico

A lot has been said in the various 1632 discussion threads on Baen's Bar, as well as in print, about how early modern Europe's populace really weren't too different from people of today. They were technically adept, given the tools that they had, so they would have been able to reproduce a great deal of modern technology. It might have taken them some time, but it would have been possible. The people would have adapted to practical technology quickly.

Early modern Europeans were highly literate, frequently in multiple languages. They were sophisticated in both philosophy and in religion. And they would be very quick studies when it comes to politics.

Even in the arts, for the most part the people of Grantville would have had little to teach them, aside from photography and sound recording. These are technologies that are really relatively straightforward once modern chemicals and tools are available.

There is one area of modern life, however, where the natives of the 1632 era would not embrace the up-time offerings with open arms: music.

Why? Because the 350+ years between their era and ours produced some of the most radical changes in musical thought and practice imaginable. More changes occurred in that time frame, and faster, than had occurred in western European music in the previous thousand years. From 1800 on, every generation produced music rather different from the previous generation; even significantly different.

Music, as much as—perhaps more than—any other art form, is learned and heard and judged by the ears of a cultural context. That's why they wouldn't just swallow the up-time music and musical forms. If you plucked a German from 1631 Mainz and dropped him into New York City today, he would have been as shocked and appalled and bewildered by the music of today as if you had plucked a South Sea islander from a secluded Pacific island in 1920 and done the same thing to him. (Okay, that is perhaps a bit of an exaggeration—but not much of one.) The down-timer culture and societies were at the bottom of that 350+ year learning curve, and it would take them time to learn to like the music; not 350 years, but more than a year or two.

Music Technology

This article is going to focus on the sound of music, on the forms of it, on how people hear it, and why it will take a while for most of the up-time music to catch on. But there are technologies to music that will now be available to the down-timers, so let's first do a quick review of those.

Strings—Violin family

When you try to research the history of the violin, you quickly discover that in the 1632 time frame there were no standardized instrument forms such as there are today. There were a variety of bewildering names: viol, violon, vihuela, viola, viola d'amore, viola da gamba, and others.

What we would think of as modern violins had by this time been pretty well standardized in overall shape, proportion, and number of strings – 4. The other three instruments of the modern string family—viola, cello, and double bass—were a long way from standardization. The viola d'amore, for example, typically had fourteen strings; seven that were played, and seven more that were pitched an octave higher that were sympathetic resonators. And the viola da gamba, despite its name, was a very large instrument, larger even than a modern cello. Double basses were just beginning to make their appearances. String counts for violas, viola da gambas and double basses varied with the luthiers who made them, or perhaps the patron or artist who commissioned them, but five or six or even seven strings weren't unheard of.

Even though 1632 is pre-Stradivarius, Grantville really has nothing to teach seventeenth-century luthiers about these instruments, other than showing them the latest refinements in proportions and preaching the advantages of standardization. The standardization required longer necks, which required fewer strings to provide the needed notes to play the music. It also required the metal wrapped gut strings that would be forthcoming from Nürnberg in the near future. The strings would hold more tension than other materials to handle the tuning changes that would be coming and which also allowed for longer necks to provide the needed notes to play the music with fewer strings. The standardization will happen quicker in the 1632 universe because of the up-time examples.

However, one big technology advance that can be brought to the down-time instrument crafter and players is the refinement of the bow. The modern bow design was established by Wilhelm Cramer and Francois Tourte in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. I won't list the individual modifications, other than red pernambuco wood from Brazil becoming the wood of choice for bows (still true today), but the result was a bow that could be held lightly with the fingertips, rather than having to be grasped with the whole hand. This in turn allowed for much greater flexibility in playing style, which was the necessary development for the rise of the violin as a virtuoso solo instrument.

Strings—Guitars, etc.

The guitar was definitely available in 1632 in various forms. Known by the names gittern, vihuela, guitarra, or vialle, it tended to be smaller than today's instrument, with a body that was narrower in proportion than today's instruments. It had a smaller sound than today's instruments, partly due to the use of gut strings, and partly due to the smaller size. The common pattern had four strings, usually doubled to be four courses of two strings each that were pitched an octave apart. By the late 1600s, luthiers were beginning to add a fifth course.

There were renowned guitar luthiers in Paris, Venice and Spain.

Again, Grantville would have little to teach the luthiers about guitars, other than to show them the larger bodied modern instruments as templates and teach them about using metal strings when desired.

The luthiers and performers will be intrigued by the banjo, however. (Concerto for Banjo and Orchestra by George Telemann? It would be possible.)

Mandolins are available in down-time forms. If any modern versions exist in Grantville, down-time luthiers may identify some refinements. Otherwise, the presence of up-time guitars may also cause some down-time experimentation with changes to mandolins.

For electric guitars, see Electronic Instruments.

Strings—Harp

Harps have been around for thousands of years, and large floor standing harps weren't uncommon in the seventeenth century. The one technological improvement that Grantville could introduce would be the tuning pedals that allow certain sets of strings to be raised or lowered in pitch. This could be done even in the middle of a performance, allowing harps a similar flexibility as pianos. Pictures are surely available in some reference works somewhere in Grantville, either the encyclopedias or some kind of music history book or music dictionary in some music teacher's private library.

Keyboards—Organ

Organs in 1632 came in three main varieties.

First is the pipe organ, where sound is produced by pumping air through what amounts to giant whistles, some with brass reeds in them. These typically were rather large instruments, usually found in cathedrals or very large churches.

They are capable of large volume gradations, and a large organ will have a very large pitch range and a wide variety of timbres available to it. It was often referred to as the "King of Instruments." Grantville has nothing to teach the seventeenth century about how to make these, other than introducing electric blower motors to fill the wind chests instead of requiring manual or mechanical mechanisms to fill them.

Second is something called a regal. It in essence was kind of like a giant keyboard operated harmonica. There would be a case containing a variety of brass reeds, with a small keyboard on one side and a couple of bellows protruding out the back. This was a portable instrument. In some cases, they would fold up to the dimensions of a very large book. Again, Grantville would have nothing to teach the down-timers about this instrument.

Third is the "portative organ," which goes back to medieval times at least.By the seventeenth century, at least some of these had grown to 52-note, foot-bellows-powered instruments about the sizeof a console upright piano. These would be comparable to more modern portable organs with foot powered bellows. There may be one still in a back room in one of the churches, else someone of the older generations will remember them. They used to be a staple of the tent revival evangelism circuits. The down-time craftsmen might pick up some refinements if a modern portable organ is still somewhere in town.

Keyboards—clavichord/harpsichord/clavier

These are all instruments which are very common in 1632. Grantville will have nothing to offer here.

Clavichord—keyboard instrument in which the strings were struck by a thin brass "blade." Strings were apparently single strands of metal, but were paired together. Sound was not large. Volume gradations (soft to loud) were possible. Sustained notes were only possible by continuing to hold down the key after the string was struck. Their range was narrow; typically three to four octaves.

Harpsichord—keyboard instrument in which the strings were plucked by a plectrum. In earliest versions, the plectrum was commonly leather, but over time crow quills became popular. As with the clavichord, strings were apparently single strands of metal. Volume gradations were not possible—the string was plucked one manner regardless of how hard or soft you hit the key. Again, sustained notes were only possible by continuing to hold down the key after the string was struck. Similar range to the clavichord.

Clavier—in French (klah-vee-ay), a term that simply means keyboard. In German (klah-veer) originally a generic term describing any keyboard instrument (including organ), but later it became a synonym for clavichord. Early pianos were sometimes referred to as hammerklaviers.

Keyboards – piano

Here is where the down-time instrument makers hit the mother lode. The piano did not exist in 1632. The first instrument recognized as a piano (pianoforte) is credited to Bartolomeo Christofori of Florence, Italy, in the early 1700s. Four major innovations had to come together in one place for the modern piano to be produced: the use of steel strings; the wrapping of the lower pitched strings in copper (tightly, so they won't buzz) to produce strings that would stand up to a hammering to produce a loud volume; the cast iron harp to reinforce the sound board to hold up to the tension of the strings; and the pedal ensemble of a grand piano, featuring three different pedals that provide variation in how the sound will be sustained or muted.

The piano is truly remarkable in its volume gradations. An eighty-eight key grand has a pitch span of almost eight octaves, putting it on a par with the organ in those categories. There is nothing contained within a piano that will be beyond the capabilities of down-time crafters, and the impact the piano will make in the 1632 musical era cannot be underestimated. It is canon that Grantville had three full-size grand pianos (two of which are spoken for), a few baby grand pianos (one in a church, one or more in schools, one or more in residences), and an unknown quantity of upright pianos of various ages and conditions. Canon does not explicitly state that some of the older uprights are player pianos, but the possibility is there, which would be of interest to both clockwork makers and instrument makers alike.

Wind Instruments—Woodwinds

The modern woodwind group covers flutes, piccolos, the oboe family, the bassoon, the clarinet family, and the saxophone family, of which only the flute would be directly related to instruments of 1632. Modern flutes and piccolos are typically made of metal, but are classed as woodwinds due to the fact that they were often made of wood well into the 1800s. Even today the bodies of piccolos are frequently totally or partially made of wood. Saxophones have always been hybrid metal and wood instruments, but are classed as woodwinds because they use a woodwind style mouthpiece with a reed and because the fingering system is like that of most woodwinds.

Most of the woodwind family would be new to the down-timers, but they would embrace them with open arms, because they would fill musical niches of older, less musical sounding instruments, such as the shawm and the serpent. It wouldn't hurt that the modern designs would for the most part be easier to play as well.

There are two technologies needed to make modern woodwinds a success. One is the Böhm key system developed by Theobald Böhm in the 1830s. It makes playing the instruments (metal or wood) easier, but it requires many many little tiny steel wire springs—preferably stainless steel—and very small screws. It simplifies the fingering, which allows for more notes and faster playing; and it allows for holes that are larger than a normal fingertip can cover. The other technology key is that during the last 350+ years, there has been a great deal of development in determining exactly how the bore of these instruments should be shaped and tapered. These relatively subtle changes allow instruments such as flutes to play much louder than the 1632 versions. Instrument crafters will mug each other to get to this information.

Wind Instruments—Brass

The big news here is valves. Down-time crafters could produce the horn forms already, including the trombone (sometimes known as a sackbut in this time). The concept of valves, however, will send down-time players and crafters into spirals of delight because of the flexibility they will provide the players. And when nickel is available for both nickel plating and for stainless steel, that will only make things better.

Instrument bore shaping and tapering improvements will be just as big an issue for the down-time brass crafters as for the woodwind crafters. Modern trombones sound much better than the 1632 sackbuts. Trumpets will sound better as well. French horns may or may not sound much improved—the ideal bore of a horn was determined fairly early.

Subtler technology improvements will come in the areas of improved mouthpiece designs, spit valves, and steel springs for all the valves. Working with up-time models will also teach the down-timers a few things about how to properly flare the instrument bells for the best sound. And the emphasis on standardization of models will also be felt.

Percussion

Modern percussion instruments were basically adopted wholesale from the Turks in the eighteenth century when military bands began to be formed. Everything Grantville has will be new to 1632, including the pedal tuning mechanism for tympani, but none of it will be beyond the abilities of the down-time craftsmen. They will need some big pieces of cowhide for some of those drumheads, though.

Electronic instruments

These instruments are all subject to the limitation/requirement that reliable electrical power supplies of the correct voltage are available. That means for the first few years their performance venues would be pretty limited. It's also likely that most of them won't be reproducible by down-time craftsmen; at least not until the down-time electronics industry reaches a particular level that will begin making certain types of parts available. That may take a while; i.e., years, maybe generations for some of them. This would include electric pianos, synthesizers, MIDI instruments, and using computers to generate music.

Electric Guitar

I will speak to this one directly, since so much popular music utilizes it. Yes, electric guitars could be reproduced by down-timer craftsmen. Amplifier speakers are possible with down-time technology, although the magnets might be electromagnets rather than the modern types currently in use. The big problem with reproducing the electronic guitar technology is that it will be at least 1637, more like 1638-9, before tubes for amplifier power heads are available in commercial quantities. Combine that with the requirement for reliable power, and it will be hard to see these as much of a force on the musical scene for quite a while.

The Building Blocks of Music

In this next section we will try to cover at a very high level some of the things that make music work. From time to time distinctions will be drawn between "street" music and "art" music. Street music would be the music of the common man, what he would hear in the homes and taverns of his town. Art music would be the music of the courts of the nobility and upper church prelates. Church music could find itself in either camp, depending on the style and who it was produced for. Most of the simple hymns could be classified as street music, especially since the words were often set to the tunes of popular songs.

Modes and tonality

Mode is a word that can have different meanings in music land, depending on whether you're talking about ancient Greeks or medieval music, or melody vs. rhythm. Most musicians would probably think of the medieval/Renaissance melody context if the word is mentioned. But to talk about modes, I first have to deal with some building block concepts.

Think of a piano keyboard. Find middle C on the keyboard. Now, move to the right up the keyboard to the next key that's a C tone. Counting all the white and black keys between middle C and the next C you have thirteen keys—eight white, five black. However, only eight of those keys (including both C tones) will be used in making what is frequently called a scale. From C to C is a tonal interval called an octave, based on the eight tones of the scale.

Now, between any two adjacent keys, whether white to black or white to white, is an interval called a half step. So, from C (white) to C# (black) is a half step. From C (white) to D (white) is a whole step. From E (white) to F (white) is a half step, because there is no black key in between them. Same story from B (white) to C (white).

Okay, now for the interesting part. A mode refers to an octave scale built on a pattern of whole and half steps. Different modes have different patterns. And pretty much all of the modes can be found just by playing octaves on white keys on the piano.

For example, from middle C to the next C up represents the Ionian mode. The pattern is:

C-whole-D-whole-E-half-F-whole-G-whole-A-whole-B-half-C

Or

1-whole-2-whole-3-half-4-whole-5-whole-6-whole-7-half-8

This Ionian mode also happens to be the major scale used in most music since not long after the 1630s.

If you do A to A on white keys only, you get the Aeolian mode, also known as the minor scale, and the half steps fall between 2/3 and 5/6.

If you do D to D on white keys only, you get the Dorian mode, where the half steps fall between 2/3 and 6/7. And so on.

There are several other modes, but you get the point. Composers, of course, can use a mode beginning on any tone. Strictly speaking, the mode is dependent on the pattern of whole and half steps, not the tone on which it begins.

The main point to grasp is that if you have different interval patterns in the melodic scale, these are also the notes you use in producing the harmony, especially in this period of time when the bulk of the church and art music is polyphonic—each "voice" line is its own melody. So, if I use a scale starting on G, I will have different harmonic chords available in Dorian mode than I will have in Lydian mode than I will have in Phrygian mode than I will have in. . . . You get the idea. The composer's choice of mode makes a big difference in the sound of the composition. Think of the difference between major and minor keys today, then think of having six to ten more choices.

There was a definite evolutionary process in the area of modes and tonalities. The drive to the established major/minor tonality "palette" was well under way during the 1500s, and was pretty definitely over in the late 1600s. Older 1632 musicians, although familiar with the major/minor concepts, would probably consider them somewhat "newfangled." Up-time music won't be totally strange to them from that standpoint at least.

There will be plenty of other issues for them to have collective apoplexy over.

Keys

This is actually a continuation of the discussion begun in the modes and tonalities section. Remember that modes were actually octave scales with differing patterns of whole steps and half steps. The Ionian mode has the half steps between 3/4 and 7/8, which is the pattern used in major keys. The Aeolian mode has the half steps between 2/3 and 5/6, which is the pattern used in minor keys. Between the time of J.S. Bach and about 1900, almost all Western European (I include North America in this category) music was written in either major or minor keys. Since 1900, a pretty high percentage of "serious" music uses other tonalities, but almost all of the popular music, including Broadway, is written in it. In modern musical usage, most music is written in either major keys or minor keys.

That part's pretty clear, I hope. But what are these sharp and flat things that keep showing up in music? The sharp symbol looks the same as the pound sign—a #. The flat symbol looks kind of like a lower case "b" with a pointy bottom. (The standard Microsoft symbols directory doesn't seem to contain it.) The purpose of a sharp is to raise a note's tone one-half step from its normal tone. A flat is to lower a note's tone one-half step from its normal tone.

This implies that note names can actually be used to represent three different tones on the piano, which is exactly the case. For example, let's take G. If a G note is indicated, it is the white key G on the piano. But if a sharp symbol is placed in front of the note, that turns the note into G-sharp, which would require the pianist to not hit the white G key, but to hit the black key immediately to the right of the G key. Similarly, if a flat symbol is placed in front of the note, that turns it into G-flat, which requires the pianist to hit the black key immediately to the left of the G key.

Okay, so what do the sharps and flats have to do with keys and scales? Remember that major and minor are defined by the patterns of whole and half steps. There is only one major key that can be played on white keys only, using only the natural tones, and that is C major. But what if we want to use a key starting on G? Using all white keys starting on G, you don't get the half steps in the right place to have a major key. So, to get the major key step pattern, instead of playing a natural F, you have to play an F-sharp. Same problem if we want to start the scale on F. To get a major key step pattern, instead of a natural B, you have to play a B-flat. And so it goes. Unless you start on a C, you will have to have sharps or flats. And some of the keys have a lot: B major, for example, has five sharps, and G-flat major has six flats.

It is common musical practice that for a given key, the sharps or flats for that key will be placed at the beginning of each line of music in the piece. It makes it easier to print and easier to read. Of course, the musician has to keep in mind what key he or she is in, or it starts to sound a little strange. Seriously, if you've played or sung for very long, it becomes second nature to you.

Everything said so far also applies to minor keys, except that the half-steps are in different places in the scale.

Harmony

Most Western European music is based on what's known as tertiary harmony. As you can tell by the name, it has something to do with thirds. To explain that, let's go back to the piano keyboard. We talked about octaves and steps. The musical term usually used to describe those is "interval." An interval is a measurement of distance between one tone and another.

So, let's start with middle C again. From middle C to the adjacent black key (which is called either C-sharp or D-flat, depending on what key we're in) is a half step, which is a minor second interval. Moving from low to high/left to right, from C to D is a whole step, which is a major second interval. From C to E is two whole steps, which is a major third interval. From C to F is two and one-half steps, which is a perfect fourth interval. From C to G is three and one-half steps, which is a perfect fifth interval. From C to A is four and one-half steps, which is a major sixth interval. From C to B is five and one-half steps, which is a major seventh interval. And from C to C is six steps, which is a perfect octave. You can continue past that point (ninth, tenth, etc.), but for our purposes we'll stay within the octave.

First question is probably why the octave, fifth and fourth are perfect, while the others are major or minor? The answer goes way back into early music history, to the time when the church was the sole repository of musical learning. Gregorian chant is monophonic—only one melody, everyone singing the same thing. For a long time the church wouldn't accept the concept of multiple lines of music. Finally, they accepted ...